5. How Organisations Use ICT 2

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Expert Systems

  • A computer-based system that makes use of human knowledge to solve problems.
  • - User Interface (method by which a computer interacts with a user, allows user to input info as well as provide output)
  • - Knowledge base (consisting of rules base and database of facts)
  • - Inference engine (the reasoning part of system, used to infer results from inputs)

Knowledge Engineer
- The person responsible for the creation and maintenance of an expert system

Shell
Software that provides the user interface, knowledge base editor, inference engine and explanation system

  • Mineral Prospecting
  • Investment Analysis
  • Financial Planning
  • Insurance Planning
  • Car Engine Fault Diagnosis
  • Medical Diagnosis
  • Route Scheduling for Delivery Vehicles
  • Plant and Animal Identification

Advantages
  • Reduces time taken to solve a problem
  • based on knowledge of many experts
  • Never "forgets" to ask a question, as a human might
  • Improves customer/patient service
  • can predict future problems
  • Saves money due to faster service time
  • Less skilled work force is required, lower wage bill (Car fault diagnosis)
Disadvantages
  • Cost a lot to set up
  • Need to be trained, takes time and money
  • Needs continually updating, temporarily out of use
  • need to be one in every garage/branch/surgery

Monitoring and Measurement

Sensors - Device used to monitor physical variables

Physical Variables - Analogue form of data found in the physical world that is continually varying

Data logging systems - Hardware&Software used in the collection of data

To edit expert system: Need a text editor

  • Medical Applications
  • Weather Monitoring
    • Climate Monitoring
  • Monitoring the Environment
  • Scientific Experiments

Project Management

A method of ensuring that a project is completed within timescale and monetary budge allowed by a business

Gantt Charts - Graphical representation of progress being made, each task can be represented

Pert Chart - Project Evaluation and Review Technique
  • Evaluate progress
  • Graphical representation

Event Chain Diagrams - Diagram showing relationship between events and tasks

Critical Path Analysis - To show critical paths

  • Software Development
  • Building Construction

Modelling
  • Use of computers to represent a real-life situation
  • Creating programmed simulation of a situation or process that will allow data to be changed and examining the effect that this has on other data
    • Often done with a spreadsheet and can be used to predict future trends

Mainframe computer - A large computer that is accessible from many computer terminals and has extremely large processing power

Choice of software
  • They often use purpose-built software for tasks.
  • Must be written specifically for the purpose
  • Many models are so complex that an off-the-shelf solution cannot be found

Off-the-shelf software - Existing software that a systems analyst may recommend for the implementation of a new system
Economic
Prototype
Climate
Weather Forecasting
Simulations

  • Used to predict the future of a nation's economy
  • Money collected from taxes used to spend on education and public services (public transport, roads)
  • Can be used to see how much money can be raised by increasing taxes by varying amounts

Prototype
  • Physical model built to an exact scale
  • Use in trials and testing
  • Have to be expendable
  • Created using Computer-Aided Design (CAD) software
    • Enables dimensions and shape to be changed to see the effect

BBC News - Beating traffic jams 'like a fish'

Climate
  • Collected data fed into a spreadsheet model
  • Used to predict trends and investigate the effect of increasing and decreasing variables
  • Predictions can be made by comparing data to previous trends
  • Cannot be certain about future, high level of complexity
  • Predictions about future climate change can only be based on particular scenarios

Climate Prediction

Weather forecasting
  • Based on supercomputers
  • Data from sensors fed into model and calculations are performed
  • Computer examines similar patterns of weather from the past and compares them to current conditions and is able to predict resulting weather
  • Resulting maps showing isobars and temperatures are produced

Supercomputer - computer that has hundreds of thousands of dual processors. It is a collection of computers that are connected through a high-speed network.

System 'to help winter crashes'

Simulation
  • Created to replicate a situation where the user is in control
  • Needed because actual physical components are expensive to replace
  • Used to teach people how to fly aircraft, drive, etc
  • Without the skills necessary in real life the results can be catastrophic

Advantages
  • Safer way of learning
  • Same manoeuvre can be repeated in quick succession
  • Dangerous situations can be simulated at no risk to vehicle or driver
  • Running costs lower + cost of fuel
Disadvantages
  • Initial costs - expensive to buy and maintain
  • Impossible to replicate all possible difficult situations they may experience
  • Operators may become too overconfident, as they are not in real physical danger and may make mistakes which would be catastrophic in the real situation

Pilots Train Without Taking Off

Profit Forecasts
  • Modelling the rate of selling a product
  • Current economic climate
  • Effect of taxation when determining the rate of selling

Profit forecasts are used to predict profits based on rate of selling, have the ability to change variables in a model

Effects of changes in taxation, wages, energy prices, rent and mortgage payments can all be observed.

Break-even facility - one of the most useful features of spreadsheet

Graphs showing number of products that must be sold in a given period for the company to break even

Architecture
  • Uses CAD software
  • Designing structures e.g. bridges and buildings
  • Software has a library of parts of structure built into the software
  • Architects are able to demonstrate the structures in three dimensions and using different viewing angles
  • Printers can be used to produce hard copy of the design, using a plotter

Nuclear Research
  • Using computer models to represent nuclear reactions, in order that they do not expose themselves to unnecessary radiation
  • Enabling scientists to change variables - temperature, rate of reaction
  • Without endangering themselves
  • Allow time to speed up so the experiment can take place in a much shorter period of time if there is slow rate of reaction

Geology/oredicting deposits
  • Can predict the features of the deposit - concentration, distribution and shape of the deposit
  • Create three-dimensional model
  • Depends on a deposit having already been found
  • Soil and rock structure is fed into the computer and a three-dimentional model of the geological landscape is then created
    • Can be used to model the positioning of the mine tunnels that will be needed

Market Research

Collection and analysis of information from sections of the public in order to discover the level of demand for a type of product or service

Primary research - Prospective or existing customers are interviewed by organizations themselves

Secondary research - Examination of existing data that has already been published, usually by another organization.
  • Cheaper but can yield inaccurate results

Research in advertizing media
Two ways data can be used:
  • Specific to a company or product
  • More generalized manner

Research in public opinion
  • Analysis - reaction to proposed economic changes or legislation that they are planning
  • Public opinion polls

Cookie - a text file sent to a user's web browser by a web server. Can be used by web servers and organizations to monitor the behavior of users

Interview methods
  • Computer-assisted personal interviewing (CAPI)
    • Interviewer and interviewee are together in the same room
      • interviewee answer questions put to them by the laptop
      • Interviewer asks questions as prompted by computer
  • Computer-assisted telephone interviewing (CATI)
    • Interviewer in a call centre
      • Computer dials the phone number of selected interviewee
      • Personal interview, asking questions and recording answers
  • Computer-aided web interviewing (CAWI)
    • Online data capture
    • Database
    • Customers log on to a particular site and answer series of questions online
    • Completing questionnaire or web form
    • Customers must have access to Internet+web browser
    • Multiple-choice response type
  • Pop-ups - However, not as successful - pop-up blocking software

Research Applications

Medicine
  • research into causes of illnesses and diseases
  • cures
  • Computer models
  • 3D models
Developing new drugs
  • Results of previous research are stored
  • computer cross-match previous research to results of new drug
  • computer monitors amounts of ingredients that are being used
  • researchers can vary amounts by very small differences (computer's very accurate)
Genetic analysis
  • Use of supercomputers
  • Analysis can be performed by the use of parallel networks in a few minutes
  • Identifying genes present
  • Health records kept on database, info on genetic make-up of patients
    • Can be used to identify those patients at risk
Science
  • Investigating the causes of these events and how improvements can be made
  • Supercomputers
    • Much larger memories and processing power than predecessors
    • Ability to simulate any type of scenario
Space Research
  • Simlulating future space shuttle launches
    • Improving crew safety and survivability
    • Effectiveness of parachutes has been modeled
    • Different arrangements of the shuttle system
    • Different methods of landing
  • Predicting impact of human activity on weather patterns
    • Modeling of various human activities that affect climate
      • Changing use of land (agriculteral to urban, deforestation, etc.)
      • Greenhouse gasses
      • Air pollutants
      • Increasing risk of loss of species, reduction in forests
  • Designing safe space exploration vehicles
    • The actual flying of the vehicles
Universities
  • Promote research in science
    • Topics in probability and statistics
    • Research in modeling and numerical simulation
    • Modeling and simulation of diseases and medicines
    • Mathematical biology
    • Psychology
    • Computers: includes numerical analysis and scientific computing
    • weather-based simulation models: aims to predict the timing of pest and disease outbreaks
  • Research into areas of energy and sustainability are also carried out
    • Fusion power: high performance computing to study what is required to sustain nuclear fusion
    • Renewable energy: sources such as wind, water and hydrogen
    • Sustainable crops: approaches to reducing energy usage in production crops
    • The impact of agricultural land
Education
  • Using ICT in lessons allow students to become more independent and to be responsible for their own learning
  • Carrying out own research in all subjects
    • Online tutorials
    • Interactive whiteboards
      • Used by teachers, allowing use of images, video, sound and hyperlinks
    • Web design
      • Used to promote scchools and provide information
      • Show pupil's work to parents
      • Communicate information to parents
    • Digital imaging
      • Use of specialized computer software to make drawings
      • Enjoyable and productive
    • Podcasting
      • Audio broadcasts
    • Blogging
      • developing ICT skills
      • Creative writing, report writing

Online Applications

  • Have to employ web designers to design their websites
    • Using web authoring software packages
    • Build security into the website
Online banking
  • When customers log on -> data is transmitted to bank's web server
  • When requests for data are made, they are passed on to the bank's Internet banking server
    • which then accesses the customer information database server
  • Connection from customer's PC to the web server is secure
    • Use of firewalls - prevent direct access from customer to customer info database
  • Web server acts as a 'go-between' between the customer and the personal data on the database
Online Shopping

  • Similar to online banking
    • need to have access to a web server
  • Shopping cart system - shopping cart software/shopping basket
    • used to create the representation of a shopping cart for customers to buy goods online
    • Can be part of the web hosting service and is integral to the web server software used
    • Also handles payment process
Online booking system
  • AKA Computer Reservation Systems (CRS)
  • Global Distribution Systems (GDS)
    • Capable of dealing with many airlines at the same time
  • Holidays
  • Train tickets
  • plane tickets
  • cinema tickets
  • theater tickets
  • appointments
Online booking systems
  • Bookings can be made at any time
  • Time and cost are saved
    • with travelling to travel agent/hotel
  • concerns: security and fraud
  • Need to have access to a web server
    • contains details of all flights, hotels, car hire, etc
    • Also services integrater server - deals with request from user and search the relevant services required

Stock Control
  • Automated systems
    • Stock controlled by computer
    • without actually allowing it to take over the process
  • When barcode is scanned,
    • System finds this barcode in the file using direct access
    • Reduces number in stock by one
    • computer compares no. in stock with re-order level
    • computer creates automatic order for re-order quantity using suppliers contact details
  • Just in time system
    • Goods are ordered so that they arrive at their distribution point as required
    • Company places order with supplier when they are on the verge of running out of stock
    • Order is placed so the goods will arrive at the company when they are required for manufacturing/selling
    • Benefits:
      • Avoids them having too much stock and unsold stock piling up
    • Disadvantage
      • May be unable to cope with sudden rise in demand